Rash Impulsivity And Sensitivity Of Reward To Ecstasy Mdam Use
医学essay代写写作范文 A battery of assessments was conducted by the participants including reward sensitivity and rash impulsivity.
Abstract
The primary aim of the study was to investigate how reward sensitivity and rash impulsivity influence the maintenance and initiation of ecstasy use. The sample comprised 208 participants, 82 males and 126 females. According to this sample 135 reported to have ever consumed the drug, whereas the remaining 73 participants reported never to have ever taken the ecstasy.
A battery of assessments was conducted by the participants including reward sensitivity and rash impulsivity. Results designated that ecstasy use was linked to high reward sensitivity and rash impulsivity. The urge for using the drug was also associated with impulsive personality traits as indicated in theory; this negatively affected the relationship between sensitivity to reward and rash impulsivity in order to reduce the negative effect. Results are discussed within two-factor model for impulsivity and the inference of these findings was considered for further intervention program. The study was a source of reference to various applicable settings.
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摘要 医学essay代写写作范文
该研究的主要目的是调查奖励敏感性和鲁莽冲动如何影响摇头丸使用的维持和开始。样本包括 208 名参与者，82 名男性和 126 名女性。根据该样本，有 135 人报告曾服用过这种药物，而其余 73 人报告称从未服用过这种摇头丸。
参与者进行了一系列评估，包括奖励敏感性和鲁莽冲动。结果表明，摇头丸的使用与高奖励敏感性和皮疹冲动有关。理论上，使用这种药物的冲动也与冲动的人格特征有关。这对奖励敏感性和鲁莽冲动之间的关系产生了负面影响，以减少负面影响。结果在冲动的双因素模型中进行了讨论，这些发现的推论被考虑用于进一步的干预计划。该研究是各种适用环境的参考来源。
Table of Contents
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………2
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………..4
Methods………………………………………………………………………………………………………6
Materials……………………………………………………………………………………………………..6
Ecstasy use…………………………………………………………………………………………………..6
Sensitivity to reward……………………………………………………………………………………..7
Rash impulsivity…………………………………………………………………………………………..7
Procedure……………………………………………………………………………………………………7
Results………………………………………………………………………………………………………..8
Preliminary data analysis……………………………………………………………………………..8
Ever used versus never used ecstasy………………………………………………………………9
Poly-drug use for users and non-users…………………………………………………………..9
Personality and its effects to ecstasy users and non-users………………………………..9
Hypothesis………………………………………………………………………………………………….12
Discussion…………………………………………………………………………………………………..12
Aims and findings………………………………………………………………………………………..12
Rash impulsivity…………………………………………………………………………………………..13
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………15
Introduction
Over the past decades there has been an increasing trend in the use of synthetic drugs among young adults and the adolescents. One such drug is Methlylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) also known as ecstasy. Dominance of the use of ecstasy has had a dramatic rise in Australia. According to Commonwealth Department of Human services and Health, (1996) 1.5% of the Australian population had consumed the drug by 1990, but this later increased to 6.2% in 2001. The percentage further rose to 7.9% in 2004. 医学essay代写写作范文
This count to around 1.3 million Australian are having reported to having ever taken ecstasy most among them young adults aged between 20 to 28 years. Ecstasy is now the third most consumed drug in Australia following both amphetamines and cannabis. Despite the fact that ecstasy is gaining popularity in Australia it is also being used in substantial proportion in environments such as homes, public places or even party centres. Reports indicate that ecstasy is not restricted in places that it has gained stereotypes and perceptions such as dance places and raves. Personality behaviours and traits have also been associated with recreational use of ecstasy (Degenhardt, Barker & Topp, 2004).
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介绍 医学essay代写写作范文
在过去的几十年中，年轻人和青少年使用合成药物的趋势呈上升趋势。一种此类药物是亚甲基二氧基甲基苯丙胺 (MDMA)，也称为摇头丸。在澳大利亚，摇头丸使用的主导地位急剧上升。根据联邦公共服务和健康部的数据，到 1990 年，澳大利亚人口的 1.5%（1996 年）曾使用过这种药物，但随后在 2001 年增加到 6.2%。2004 年这一比例进一步上升到 7.9%。
据报告，约有 130 万澳大利亚人曾服用过摇头丸，其中大多数是 20 至 28 岁的年轻人。摇头丸现在是澳大利亚第三大消费药物，仅次于安非他明和大麻。尽管摇头丸在澳大利亚越来越受欢迎，但它也在家庭、公共场所甚至派对中心等环境中大量使用。报告表明，摇头丸并不限制在它已经获得刻板印象和观念的地方，如舞池和狂欢。人格行为和特征也与摇头丸的消遣性使用有关（Degenhardt, Barker & Topp, 2004）。
As researchers are trying to get the so called addictive personality, they have come up with some aspects of personalities that are elevators to risk for ecstasy use.
Researches have also noted that the impacts of ecstasy use have been felt around the globe. Being able to combat this problem is something to consider nationally as well as internationally. The rate of students dropping out of collages and universities in Australia has increased as a result of ecstasy use, the number of young adults women giving birth to premature babies is as a result of the use of Methlylenedioxymethamphetamine, the increased number of number of mental patients around the ages of 20 to 29 has increased as a result using ecstasy (Eysenck, et al. 1985). 医学essay代写写作范文
Several independent findings have shown that negative behaviour changes during adolescents as contributed to the increase in number of ecstasy users in Australia. A conceptualization of non-planning rash impulsivity has indicated that ecstasy users also take other drugs such as cocaine among others. To date there has been two studies that found unequal results; the first study showed that recreational ecstasy users were related with impulsivity differences(Parrott, Sisk & Turner, 2000). The other study indicated that reward sensitivity leads to negative affects of ecstasy use mostly to fulltime users. Results also states that among the non-users ¾ of them say that they have friend who take ecstasy.
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当研究人员试图获得所谓的上瘾人格时，他们已经提出了一些人格方面的问题，这些方面是使用摇头丸的风险的电梯。
研究还指出，全球各地都感受到了摇头丸使用的影响。能够解决这个问题是国内和国际上都需要考虑的事情。由于使用摇头丸，澳大利亚大学和大学的退学率有所增加，年轻女性早产的人数是由于使用甲二氧基甲基苯丙胺，精神病患者人数的增加由于使用摇头丸，20 到 29 岁左右的人数有所增加（Eysenck 等人，1985 年）。
几项独立调查结果表明，青少年时期的消极行为改变导致了澳大利亚摇头丸使用者数量的增加。非计划性鲁莽冲动的概念化表明，摇头丸使用者还服用其他药物，如可卡因等。迄今为止，有两项研究发现了不平等的结果；第一项研究表明，消遣性摇头丸使用者与冲动性差异有关（Parrott, Sisk & Turner, 2000）。另一项研究表明，奖励敏感性主要对全职用户导致摇头丸使用的负面影响。结果还表明，在非用户中，有 3/4 表示他们有服用摇头丸的朋友。
Hence, the importance of undertaking this research in order to determine the most probable recommendation to solve the problems related to use of ecstasy.
It has been suggested by many scholars that this rise may bring a misconception that ecstasy is a safe drug, contrary, it has also be reported in Australia that the drug has both short term and long term effects. Short term include: irritability, depression, psychosis and insomnia as well as the long term side effects include: cognitive deficits such a memory loss (Degenhardt, Barker & Topp, 2004). 医学essay代写写作范文
Despite the fact that several studies have tried to link impulsivity and ecstasy use, the process that impulsivity may influence addictive traits has received limited attention. Research suggests that cognitive plays the key role in engaging drug consuming behaviour. Though, little is known concerning the role of cognition in ecstasy use. The term impulsivity means to the behaviour that is unplanned, quick, thoughtless, and reflects lack of deliberation of latent consequences. It is often related to risk behaviours. Rash impulsivity is the measure of a hasty behaviour that has been often used in ecstasy literature.
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因此，为了确定最可能的建议来解决与使用摇头丸有关的问题，进行这项研究的重要性。
很多学者认为，这种上升可能会带来摇头丸是一种安全药物的误解，相反，澳大利亚也有报道称这种药物具有短期和长期双重作用。短期包括：易怒、抑郁、精神病和失眠以及长期副作用包括：认知缺陷，如记忆力减退（Degenhardt, Barker & Topp, 2004）。
尽管有几项研究试图将冲动性和摇头丸的使用联系起来，但冲动性可能影响成瘾特征的过程受到的关注有限。研究表明，认知在参与吸毒行为中起着关键作用。尽管如此，关于认知在摇头丸使用中的作用知之甚少。冲动一词是指无计划、快速、轻率的行为，反映了对潜在后果缺乏深思熟虑。它通常与危险行为有关。皮疹冲动是对狂喜文学中经常使用的仓促行为的衡量。
Sensitivity to reward is a conceptual framework derived from Gray neurobiological theory- a theoretical system aimed at motivating behaviour that conceptualizes impulsivity.
Rash sensitivity is measures the hasty behaviour in an individual using ecstasy while sensitivity to reward is a theoretical explanation of how impulsivity is affected by an individuals behaviour (Eysenck, et al. 1985). Provided is the evidence that reward sensitivity is linked with impulsive behaviors and the use of ecstasy is a behaviour that is undertaken by impulsive individuals a factor that is significant in understanding ecstasy use. It is also evident from the two factor model that sensitivity to reward plays a role in evaluating or understanding ecstasy behaviour (Parrott, Sisk & Turner, 2000). It’s clear that the study will be able to evaluate if both users and non-users of ecstasy differ the in the level of sensitivity to reward as well as rate of rash impulsivity-hypothesis.
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对奖励的敏感性是源自格雷神经生物学理论的概念框架 – 一个旨在激励行为的理论体系，将冲动概念化。
皮疹敏感性是衡量个人使用摇头丸的仓促行为，而对奖励的敏感性是对冲动如何受个人行为影响的理论解释（Eysenck, et al. 1985）。 提供的证据表明奖励敏感性与冲动行为有关，而摇头丸的使用是由冲动的个人进行的一种行为，这是理解摇头丸使用的重要因素。 从双因素模型中也可以明显看出，对奖励的敏感性在评估或理解摇头丸行为中发挥作用（Parrott，Sisk 和 Turner，2000）。 很明显，该研究将能够评估摇头丸的使用者和非使用者在对奖励的敏感程度以及鲁莽冲动假设率方面是否存在差异。
Methods
Participants
The sample consisted of 208 participants from Australia (82 males and 126 females) ranging in the age from 18 years to 50 years (M= 23.46, SD= 5.119). With reference to the sample it was noted that, 135 participants reported to have ever consumed the drug, whereas the remaining 73 participants reported never to have ever taken the ecstasy.
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方法 医学essay代写写作范文
参与者
样本包括来自澳大利亚的 208 名参与者（82 名男性和 126 名女性），年龄从 18 岁到 50 岁不等（M = 23.46，SD = 5.119）。 关于样本，注意到 135 名参与者报告曾服用过这种药物，而其余 73 名参与者报告称从未服用过摇头丸。
Materials
Participants were asked to report how often they have used ecstasy in the past year. This formed the basis for both categorical and continuous measures of ecstasy use. For the categorical approach, responses to this item were re-coded into 0 (non-user) or 1 (user – any value greater than 0).
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材料
摇头丸用途
参与者被要求报告他们在过去一年中使用摇头丸的频率。 这构成了对摇头丸使用进行分类和连续测量的基础。 对于分类方法，对该项目的响应被重新编码为 0（非用户）或 1（用户 – 任何大于 0 的值）。
Sensitivity to reward
The 24-item sensitivity to reward (SR) subscale of the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire (Torrubia, Avila, Molto & Caseras, 2001) was used in the present study. Participants give ‘yes/no’ responses to specific statements relating to sensitivity to reward (e.g., ‘Does the good prospect of obtaining money motivate you strongly to do some things?’). Values of 1 are assigned to ‘Yes’ responses, and 0 to ‘No’ responses. Participants’ responses are summed and higher scores reflect greater sensitivity to reward. The SR scale possesses adequate internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and factorial validity (Cooper & Gomez, 2008; Torrubia et al., 2001). 医学essay代写写作范文
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对奖励的敏感性
本研究使用了 24 个条目的奖励敏感性 (SR) 子量表，即惩罚敏感性和奖励敏感性问卷 (Torrubia, Avila, Molto & Caseras, 2001)。 参与者对与奖励敏感性相关的具体陈述给出“是/否”的回答（例如，“获得金钱的良好前景是否会强烈地激励你做一些事情？”）。 值 1 分配给“是”响应，0 分配给“否”响应。 参与者的回答被求和，分数越高反映对奖励的敏感度越高。 SR 量表具有足够的内部一致性、重测信度和因子效度 (Cooper & Gomez, 2008; Torrubia et al., 2001)。
Rash impulsivity
The impulsiveness subscale of Eysenck and Eysenck’s (1978) Impulsiveness, Venturesomeness, and Empathy scale was used to measure rash impulsivity. This subscale consists of 19 questions which respondents answer in a Yes/No format, with responses of ‘No’ assigned a value of 0 and ‘Yes’ responses assigned values of 1. An example question is ‘Would you enjoy water skiing?’ Responses are summed to produce an overall score for rash impulsivity, with higher scores reflecting greater impulsivity. This scale has demonstrated psychometric properties (Eysenck, Pearson, Easting & Allsopp, 1985) and has been used in previous studies of ecstasy use (e.g., Parrott et al., 2000).
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皮疹冲动
Eysenck 和 Eysenck (1978) Impulsiveness, Venturesomeness 和 Empathy 量表的冲动性分量表被用来测量鲁莽冲动性。 该分量表由 19 个问题组成，受访者以是/否格式回答，“否”的回答赋值为 0，“是”的回答赋值为 1。一个示例问题是“你喜欢滑水吗？”回答 相加得出皮疹冲动的总分，分数越高反映冲动性越大。 该量表已证明具有心理测量特性（Eysenck、Pearson、Easting 和 Allsopp，1985），并已用于先前的摇头丸使用研究（例如 Parrott 等，2000）。
Procedure
Participants were recruited from undergraduate courses offered at Deakin University. Announcements were made at the beginning of lectures to advertise the study to students. Flyers were left at the entrance to the lecture theatre and students who were interested in participating were invited to pick up a flyer at the end of class. The flyers contained a weblink which students could use to access and fill out the survey online.
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程序
参与者是从迪肯大学提供的本科课程中招募的。 在讲座开始时发布公告，向学生宣传这项研究。 传单被放置在演讲厅的入口处，并邀请有兴趣参与的学生在课程结束时领取传单。 传单包含一个网络链接，学生可以使用该链接访问并在线填写调查问卷。
Results
Preliminary data analysis
The date obtained was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 12. In order to determine the suitability of the date it was subjected to several further preliminary analyses. All the participants completed the drug history questions as well the demographic ones. These cases were retained in order to investigate rash impulsivity in a larger sample scale; this was considered important since an accurate evidence of rash impulsivity was supposed to be obtained given that literature had reported small sample size previously.
All the measures were completed by all the participants. For the case of having a large size of sample all the participants were retained, in this case all the information was also retained for valuable data analysis using completed scales. In order to maintain consistency all the tables contained the highest N values used in the analysis (N=208). The results were not affected in the analysis as a result of maintaining these cases. 医学essay代写写作范文
The missing discrete value, were substituted by item mean. Missing date was not replaced by motive data since in most cases non-users did not answer questions from the scale. For the case of distribution of normality the data for continuous measures from both groups (users and non-users) were analysed. The minimum age of the participants was 18 years and the maximum age was 50 years and (M= 23.46, SD= 5.119). The maximum number of ecstasy frequency was 18 with a mean of 5.72 and SD= 3.8.
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结果 医学essay代写写作范文
初步数据分析
使用社会科学统计包 (SPSS) 版本 12 对获得的日期进行分析。为了确定日期的适用性，对其进行了几项进一步的初步分析。所有参与者都完成了药物史问题以及人口统计问题。保留这些病例是为了在更大的样本范围内调查皮疹冲动；这被认为是重要的，因为鉴于之前文献报道的样本量较小，本应获得鲁莽冲动的准确证据。
所有措施均由所有参与者完成。对于样本量较大的情况，所有参与者都被保留，在这种情况下，所有信息也被保留，用于使用完整量表进行有价值的数据分析。为了保持一致性，所有表格都包含分析中使用的最高 N 个值 (N=208)。由于保留这些案例，结果在分析中没有受到影响。
缺失的离散值由项目均值代替。缺少的日期不会被动机数据取代，因为在大多数情况下，非用户不会回答量表中的问题。对于正态分布的情况，分析了来自两组（用户和非用户）的连续测量数据。参与者的最小年龄为 18 岁，最大年龄为 50 岁（M = 23.46，SD = 5.119）。摇头丸频率的最大数量为 18，平均值为 5.72，SD = 3.8。
Ever used versus never used ecstasy
Poly-drug use for users and non-users
In this lap report the participants were divided into two groups; those that have never used ecstasy (non-users) and those that had ever taken ecstasy in their life time (users). The percentage of drug use for ecstasy non-users and users can be seen in Table 1 Below.
The results from the table above indicate that more people are significantly able to consume ecstasy. An independent frequency-test demonstrated that there was significant age difference between ecstasy users and non-users.
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曾经使用过与从未使用过摇头丸
使用者和非使用者的多药使用
在这个圈数报告中，参与者被分为两组； 那些从未使用过摇头丸的人（非使用者）和那些曾服用过摇头丸的人（使用者）。 摇头丸非使用者和使用者的吸毒百分比见下表 1。
上表的结果表明，更多的人能够明显地消费摇头丸。 一项独立的频率测试表明，摇头丸使用者和非使用者之间存在显着的年龄差异。
Regression Analyses
Hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to evaluate the influence of rash impulsivity on the use of ecstasy by itself (at Step 1), and within the context of reward sensitivity to ecstasy use. (At Step 2). At Step 1, rash impulsivity scores reliably predict change in use of ecstasy, accounting for approximately 22% of variance in the DV; F (1. 941) = 51.00, p < .001. The inclusion of other domains of satisfaction explained an additional 10% variance in the DV; ΔR2 = .025, F Change (2. 025) = 10.69, p <.01.
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回归分析
进行分层回归分析以评估鲁莽冲动对使用摇头丸本身（在步骤 1）的影响，以及在对摇头丸使用的奖励敏感性的背景下。 （在第 2 步）。 在第 1 步，鲁莽冲动评分可靠地预测了摇头丸使用的变化，约占 DV 方差的 22%； F (1. 941) = 51.00，p < .001。 包含其他满意度领域解释了 DV 中额外 10% 的差异； ΔR2 = .025，F 变化 (2. 025) = 10.69，p <.01。
Personality and its effects to ecstasy users and non-users
A between group one way ANOVA analysis of variance was performed to determine the difference in personality and the impacts it has to non-users and users of ecstasy. Before the testing, the assumption of ANOVA was tested. The observations were independent from one another and the date was free from univariate outliers. The dependent variables were normally distributed, with the omission of negative and positive effects. Though, ANOVA was considered to be larger than the normality since this case sample size was equal across all the cells. The data was found to posses equal variances when independent variables were tested for every dependent variable tested. Most of the variables were linear related and correlated, and those that did not have a significant relationship there was theoretical relationship between the variables. Thus, ANOVA was considered to be the appropriate test to be considered. 医学essay代写写作范文
Sensitivity to reward, rash impulsivity and negative and positive affects for ecstasy non-users and users were compared. The ANOVA indicated there is no significant univariate effect of personality on ecstasy use, with a possibility of .000. This means that the hypotheses both sensitivity to rewards and rash impulsivity towards both groups. By inspecting the means there is high difference between the two groups. The predictors show that the two differences depict that the participants difference resulted to the big difference in mean hence a multiple comparison test could be done.
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人格及其对摇头丸用户和非用户的影响
进行组间单向方差分析以确定个性差异及其对非使用者和摇头丸使用者的影响。在测试之前，对方差分析的假设进行了测试。观察结果相互独立，日期没有单变量异常值。因变量呈正态分布，忽略了负面和正面影响。尽管如此，ANOVA 被认为大于正态性，因为这种情况下的样本大小在所有单元格中相等。当对每个测试的因变量测试自变量时，发现数据具有相等的方差。大部分变量是线性相关和相关的，那些没有显着关系的变量之间存在理论关系。因此，方差分析被认为是要考虑的适当测试。
比较了摇头丸非使用者和使用者对奖励的敏感性、鲁莽的冲动以及消极和积极的影响。方差分析表明，人格对摇头丸使用没有显着的单变量影响，可能性为 0.000。这意味着这些假设对奖励的敏感性和对两组的鲁莽冲动都具有敏感性。通过检查手段，两组之间存在很大差异。预测变量表明，这两个差异表明参与者的差异导致了平均值的巨大差异，因此可以进行多重比较测试。
T-test and regression analysis
An independent t-test also showed that there was no significant difference in age between ecstasy users and non-users. See table 3 below:
A t-test was undertaken to determine whether level of rash impulsivity differs across our two groups. The correlation between sensitivity to reward and affects towards ecstasy use was not significant. But, it has been noted that sensitivity to reward describes 1.6% of the variance in the positivity towards use of ecstasy to enhance and maintain social cohesion. On the other hand, rash impulsivity and drive to use to reduce the effects of ecstasy use was correlated, mediation analysis was conducted. Multiple regressions were used to evaluate the relationship between rash impulsivity to both users and non-users of ecstasy. The assumptions of multiple regressions were conducted before the completion of all the other tests.
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T检验和回归分析
一项独立的 t 检验还表明，摇头丸使用者和非使用者之间的年龄没有显着差异。 见下表3：
进行了 t 检验以确定我们两组的皮疹冲动水平是否不同。 对奖励的敏感性与对摇头丸使用的影响之间的相关性不显着。 但是，已经注意到对奖励的敏感性描述了使用摇头丸来增强和维持社会凝聚力的积极性差异的 1.6%。 另一方面，皮疹的冲动性和使用驱动力以减少摇头丸使用的影响是相关的，进行了中介分析。 多元回归用于评估狂喜的使用者和非使用者的皮疹冲动之间的关系。 多元回归的假设是在所有其他测试完成之前进行的。
All the observations were considered to be independent of one another.
The Levene’s Test for equal variance yields a p-value of .000. The means that the difference between the variance is statistically significant. The p-value .113, more than 0.05 indicates that there is no difference between the two groups towards rash impulsivity. The 95% confidence interval for the difference between two means is (-1.871, .19842). The other t-test was undertaken to determine whether level of sensitivity to reward differs across our two groups-users and non-users. 医学essay代写写作范文
The p-value was also .000 meaning that there was no difference between the two group with respect to their level of sensitivity to reward. The 95% confidence interval for the difference between two means is (-2.5871, .25). when testing the hypotheses: users and non-users of ecstasy differ in their level of rash impulsivity has a p-value of less that 0.05 it is .000. this means that the hypothesis is a null hypothesis.
译文：
所有的观察都被认为是相互独立的。
Levene 的等方差检验产生的 p 值为 .000。 这意味着方差之间的差异在统计上是显着的。 p 值 0.113，大于 0.05 表明两组之间在皮疹冲动方面没有差异。 两个均值之差的 95% 置信区间为 (-1.871, .19842)。 进行了另一个 t 检验以确定我们两个群体（用户和非用户）对奖励的敏感性水平是否不同。
p 值也是 0.000，这意味着两组之间对奖励的敏感程度没有差异。 两个均值之差的 95% 置信区间为 (-2.5871, .25)。 在测试假设时：摇头丸的使用者和非使用者的皮疹冲动程度不同，p 值小于 0.05，即 0.000。 这意味着假设是零假设。
Then the hypothesis does not stand. At a level p=0.05 significance level, there exist no evidence that concludes users and non-users of ecstasy differ in their level of rash impulsivity.
Other the other hand users and non-users of ecstasy differ in their level of sensitivity to reward hold evidence to state that the hypothesis is true that the two groups differ in their levels of sensitivity towards ecstasy use with a p-value of 0.015 value > 0.05. with value of + 0.440 and + 0.152 there is a linear relationship between rash impulsivity, sensitivity to rewards and users and non-users of ecstasy. See table 4 below;
The correlation coefficient of .469a suggests that sensitivity to rewards and rash impulsivity have a linear relationship to ecstasy use. See table 6 below:
译文：
那么假设不成立。 在 p=0.05 显着性水平上，没有证据表明摇头丸的使用者和非使用者的皮疹冲动程度不同。
另一方面，摇头丸的使用者和非使用者对奖励的敏感性水平不同 持有证据表明假设是正确的，即两组对摇头丸使用的敏感性水平不同，p 值为 0.015 > 0.05。 值为+ 0.440 和+ 0.152 时，鲁莽冲动性、对奖励的敏感性以及摇头丸的使用者和非使用者之间存在线性关系。 见下表4；
0.469a 的相关系数表明对奖励的敏感性和鲁莽冲动与摇头丸的使用呈线性关系。 见下表6：
Discussion
The study determined the relationship the use of ecstasy use and impulsivity. Purposely, the role of reward sensitivity and rash impulsivity in understanding the use of ecstasy was investigated using Loxton’s and Dawe two facet model of impulsivity (Dawe, Gullo, & Loxton, 2004). In addition the study also used Gray’s model sensitivity to reward in limiting the use of ecstasy use. 医学essay代写写作范文
The intention of the research was to establish the incorporated model of why individuals take ecstasy by investigating the relation between the conceptualization of sensitivity to reward and impulsivity (Torrubia et al. 2001). As hypothesized, the number of ecstasy users was higher as compared to the number of non-users in reward sensitivity and rash impulsivity. Sensitivity reward was not linked to positive effects as expected, relatively results depicts that reward sensitivity had more close and linear relationship with the use of ecstasy. Results supported that rash impulsivity was positively connected with negative affect to the use of ecstasy.
译文：
讨论 医学essay代写写作范文
该研究确定了使用摇头丸和冲动之间的关系。有目的地使用 Loxton 和 Dawe 冲动的两方面模型（Dawe，Gullo，＆Loxton，2004）研究了奖励敏感性和鲁莽冲动在理解摇头丸使用中的作用。此外，该研究还使用格雷的模型敏感性来限制使用摇头丸的使用奖励。
该研究的目的是通过调查对奖励的敏感性和冲动性的概念化之间的关系来建立个人为什么会欣喜若狂的综合模型（Torrubia 等人，2001 年）。正如假设的那样，与奖励敏感度和鲁莽冲动的非用户数量相比，摇头丸用户的数量更高。敏感性奖励与预期的积极效果无关，相对结果表明奖励敏感性与摇头丸的使用有更密切和线性的关系。结果支持皮疹冲动与使用摇头丸的负面影响呈正相关。
Rash impulsivity
As consistent and expected with several literature, when using control groups it is identified that ecstasy users report high rash impulsivity than non-users. Findings offer support to the above theoretical view that ecstasy users are more likely to act spontaneously, display disinhibition behaviour, hastily and other acts without consideration of potential consequences. Reach has also shown that ecstasy users are always aware of the potential harm of taking this drug. This propensity to act without considering the after effects clearly points out why some individuals take ecstasy in light of clear negative sequelae (Butler & Montgomery, 2004). The study points out that Australian ecstasy user are similar to the others studied internationally. Though, there was only one study that indicates rash impulsivity, but this study on Brisbane rave participants found no difference in impulsivity between non-users and ecstasy users.
Nevertheless, it was suggested that reward sensitivity persons may use ecstasy for riotous reasons as the individuals are more responsive to the positive components of taking the drug. This theory stills hold some truth as reward sensitivity individuals use ecstasy to main the nature of their social cohesion. Thus, it is suggested that ecstasy users are more sensitive to the rewards that are related to stronger social network. It is expected that the ecstasy users think that taking the drug will increase their cohesion with peers. Contrary, it has been reported that ecstasy users experience subacute impacts such as sadness, unhappiness and boredom after the administration of the drug (Topp et al. 1999).
译文：
皮疹冲动 医学essay代写写作范文
与一些文献一致和预期，当使用对照组时，发现摇头丸使用者报告的皮疹冲动比非使用者高。研究结果支持上述理论观点，即摇头丸使用者更有可能自发地采取行动，表现出解除抑制的行为，仓促和其他不考虑潜在后果的行为。 Reach 还表明，摇头丸使用者总是意识到服用这种药物的潜在危害。这种不考虑后遗症而采取行动的倾向清楚地指出了为什么有些人会因为明显的负面后遗症而服用摇头丸（巴特勒和蒙哥马利，2004 年）。该研究指出，澳大利亚摇头丸使用者与国际上研究的其他人相似。虽然只有一项研究表明鲁莽冲动，但这项针对布里斯班狂欢参与者的研究发现，非使用者和摇头丸使用者之间的冲动性没有差异。
尽管如此，有人建议奖励敏感的人可能会出于各种原因使用摇头丸，因为这些人对服用这种药物的积极成分更敏感。这个理论仍然有一些道理，因为奖励敏感性个人使用狂喜来主导他们的社会凝聚力的性质。因此，建议摇头丸用户对与更强社交网络相关的奖励更敏感。预计摇头丸使用者认为服用该药物会增加他们与同龄人的凝聚力。相反，据报道，摇头丸使用者在服用药物后会经历亚急性影响，例如悲伤、不快乐和无聊（Topp 等人，1999 年）。
It is shocking to consider the effects of the cyclic nature of the two way model.
It is suggested that rash impulsivity servers and maintains to support the first approach and growth of the use of ecstasy for some individuals. Some rash impulsive individuals take ecstasy as a reduction of negative effects; this makes it possible to conclude that this behaviour may support the appetitive to take the drug. In line with other suggestions from researchers this model is there to offer some suggestions as to why some individual have to continue with the behaviour just after taking ecstasy even once. 医学essay代写写作范文
The investigation was able to identify two different models of ecstasy drive. It seems that those who have more reward sensitivity are more likely to be lured by positive social sides linked with ecstasy use. On the other hand, it seems that rash sensitivity individuals are stimulated by the expectation that the drug will aid them in relief of other negative emotions and effects which may rise due to rash impulsivity.
There are several constraints that have limited the exploitation of findings from the present study. Since the drug was obtained using retrospectively the estimates for prior ecstasy use may be inaccurate. Other limitation is that most of the MDMA tablets contain other substance hence hard to evaluate the affects of the drugs. Future research may handle the limitations by developing valid and reliable drug history questionnaires since it may help in replication of results and eliminate some of the affects of estimation of prior drug use.
译文：
考虑双向模型的循环性质的影响令人震惊。
建议鲁莽冲动服务并维持支持某些人使用摇头丸的第一种方法和增长。一些轻率冲动的人将狂喜视为减少负面影响；这使得有可能得出结论，这种行为可能支持服用该药物的食欲。与研究人员的其他建议一致，该模型提供了一些建议，说明为什么有些人在服用摇头丸后还必须继续这种行为。
调查能够确定两种不同的摇头丸驱动模型。似乎那些对奖励更敏感的人更有可能被与摇头丸使用相关的积极社交方面所吸引。另一方面，对皮疹敏感的个体似乎受到药物将帮助他们缓解其他负面情绪和影响的刺激，这些负面情绪和影响可能因皮疹冲动而上升。
有几个限制因素限制了对本研究结果的利用。由于该药物是回顾性获得的，因此对先前使用摇头丸的估计可能不准确。其他限制是大多数 MDMA 片剂含有其他物质，因此很难评估药物的影响。未来的研究可能会通过开发有效和可靠的药物史调查表来处理这些局限性，因为它可能有助于结果的复制并消除对先前药物使用情况估计的一些影响。
References
Butler, G.K.L., & Montgomery, A.M.J. (2004). Impulsivity, risk taking and recreational ‘Ecstasy’ (MDMA) use. Drug and alcohol dependence, 76, 55-62.
Cooper, A., & Gomez, R. (2008). The development of a short form of the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire. Journal of Individual Differences, 29, 90-104.
Dawe, S., Gullo, M.J., & Loxton, N.J. (2004). Reward drive and rash impulsiveness as dimensions of impulsivity: Implications for substance misuse. Addictive Behaviours, 29, 1389-1405.
Degenhardt, L., Barker, B., & Topp, L. (2004). Patterns of ecstasy use in Australia: Findings from a national household survey. Addiction, 99, 187- 195.
Eysenck, S.B.G., Pearson, P.R., Easting, G., Allsopp, J.F. (1985). Age norms for Impulsiveness, Venturesomeness and empathy in adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 6,613-619.
Parrott, A.C., Sisk, E., & Turner, J.J.D. (2000). Psychobiological problems in heavy ‘Ecstasy’ (MDMA) polydrug users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 60, 105-111.
Topp, L., Hando, J., Dillon, P., Roche, A., & Solowij, N. (1999). Ecstasy use in Australia: patterns of use and associated harm. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 55, 105–115.
Torrubia, R., Ávila, C., Moltó, J., & Caseras, X. (2001). The Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire (SPSRQ) as a measure of Gray’s anxiety and impulsivity dimensions. Personality and Individual Differences, 31, 837-862.
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